In a fundamental sense, the study of any religion is an attempt to understand its perspective on Ultimate Reality and the manner by which humans may relate to that reality. Such high purpose needs to be approached gradually step by step like in any similar studies in science. The purpose of this paper is to set a stage for such a study and is a first step in that direction.

Sociologist Emile Durkheim (1964) defined religion as "a unified set of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things" leading to a social bond among people. It can be argued that there are indeed a "unified set of beliefs" among Hindus everywhere and these pertain to (a) belief in multiple gods and goddesses including natural elements such as earth, water and fire, (b) reverence for all forms of life including animals and birds, leading to deification of cattle, snakes, monkeys, eagles and the like, (c) belief in reincarnation and (d) respect for other religious beliefs and approaches. However the same cannot be said about Hindu practices which may show such wide variation that the uninitiated may question whether so much of the variety can flow from one set of beliefs.

Jawaharlal Nehru defined Hinduism as meaning " all things to all men" and Troy Wilson Organ (1974) refers to it as "an unstable mixture of the primitive and the sophisticated." It is not uncommon to read references to Hinduism as "a way of life" rather than a religion. Yet, Hinduism is generally accepted as a religion, the wide variations in its definition notwithstanding. However, not only is the social bond stated in Durkheim's definition above as a goal has remained pretty elusive, but also the practice of Hinduism, whether in temples or in wedding ceremonies displays such severe lack of discipline that it is often felt as nearly chaotic.

Unlike Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism all of which have founders, Hinduism has no founder. It has no one book such as the Bible or Koran as its basis. It is not an organized religion. It has no founding date. It has no hierarchy of priests leading to a potentate such as a pope at its head, notwithstanding the many so-called "Jagadgurus" periodically arriving in New York from India. There are no standard sacraments, no rites of initiation accepted and practiced by all those who profess to be Hindus. In fact even the question of who does profess to be a Hindu is answered somewhat humorously as those who refuse to deny it!

With no such anchors, it is not surprising that scholars have had a field day in trying to assess this religion in a western framework. Not only has that been nearly impossible but it has led to hundreds of interpretations some of which glorify Hinduism as flexible, broad, secular but also some ridicule. When I was growing up it was fashionable for young people to openly declare that they did not believe "in these practices," clearly referring to ceremonies performed or observed by their elders. In the first chapter of his book (Problems in Understanding Hinduism), Troy Wilson Organ cites an amusing, yet disgusting incident of a dinner companion in India "who, after assuring me he had completely deserted Hinduism, carefully removed a fly from his glass of water, placed it on the floor, and then observed, 'I think it will be alright now.' I could not refrain from reminding my friend that his act revealed more about his religion than his words." This type of reference in a scholarly book may help make a point but it is also hurtful because it does at the same time tend to perpetuate the unfortunate blemish in regard to hygiene, etc. It certainly diverted my attention and my anguish is clear in my restating it!

The earliest Hindu thought has been traced to what has been called as the Saraswati river civilization. On the basis of star positions and calendars used in the Vedas, some scholars are of the opinion that the Rg Veda (about a 30,000 fairly short hymns of praise) in its oral form were composed around 4000 to 6000 BCE. The popular belief is that Hindus received their religion through revelation: the Vedas. This is referred to as shruti or revealed authority. They have been passed on from generation to generation over 3000 years through the process of oral transmission. According to Abinash Chandra Bose (1966), "The rise and fall of political powers, external invasion and internal strife, change of language, racial admixture and the conflict of sects and creeds could not impede this oral tradition." Bose continues and quotes Macdonnel (1899) who, commenting on this oral tradition, said as far back as 1899 that " The Vedas are still learnt by heart as they were long before the invasion of Alexander, and could now be restored from the lips of religious teachers if every manuscript or printed copy were destroyed." The Hindu belief is that the Vedas are without beginning and without end. One wonders how a book can be described thus. But by the Vedas no books are meant. According to Swami Vivekananda (1893) the Vedas mean "the accumulated treasure of spiritual laws discovered by different persons at different times."

Subsequent periods of development are referred to as the Indus Valley civilization (4000-2200 BCE), Vedic period (2500 BCE - 500 BCE), Classical period (500 BCE to about 500 AD), the Medieval period (500 AD to the 19^th century), and the modern period.

The Vedas are a collection of writings structured as Samhitas (mantras), Brahmanas (commentaries), Aranyakas (forest treatises) and Upanishads (knowledge section of Vedic literature.) It is not uncommon to find in the Upanishads severe criticisms of the earlier Vedic practices. The four Samhitas are a collection of wisdom and comprise the Rg (praise wisdom), Yajur (sacred formula wisdom), Sama (the chant wisdom), and Atharva (the magical charm wisdom).

In addition to the Vedas, there are other equally important class of scriptures belonging to the Smrti tradition. Unlike the Shrutis (revealed), Smrtis are regarded as "remembered" and the principal scriptures in this class include ithihasas i.e the epics; the Ramayana and the Mahabharata with the Srimad Bhagavadgita, (b) Puranas containing myths and legends relating to the Hindu Trinity (Brahma, Vishnu and Maheswara ; for example, the Srimadbhagavatam deals with stories of Krishna and his exploits and the story of Prahlad in the Vishnupurana) and (c) Dharmashastras, the principal one attributed to Manu, the universal lawgiver and dealing with the creation of the world, varnashrama dharma and civil and criminal law, transmigration of soul and bliss.

With this background, let us review the most central and core concept of Hindu philosophy known as Dharma. All other principles and values flow from this beautiful fountain of Dharma. The word Dharma is formed from the root dhr and literally means to hold, sustain and maintain a thing in its being. There is no accurate translation of the word into English but we may have a glimpse of its vast scope by translating Dharma as right action, right conduct, virtue, moral law, etc. Every form of life, every group of people has its Dharma, which is the law of its being. Dharma or virtue is conformity with the truth of things; adharma or vice is opposition to it. Bringing up a child means inculcating in the child a variety of guidelines through which he or she will develop a sense to distinguish a dharmic act from its opposite. Beyond that, an individual may be able to define the boundaries of Dharma through interactions, discussions, reading of scriptures, the great epics, legends, mythologies, history, drama and a wide variety of stories heard throughout the formative years. These experiences form samskaras that constitute personal measures and yardsticks that an individual may use in making decisions throughout a lifetime. In a sense this is the individual's conscience and it is perhaps the only available light that guides individual actions. There are no other readily available manuals that can serve to distinguish our actions.

Aristotle had a similar idea. He stated " A good citizen is one who acts in accordance with the laws of the state. A good man is one, who acts in accordance with the principles of virtue. It is likely that on occasions the laws of state may not be in accordance with the principles of virtue. In such situations, the good man will not act in accordance with them but a good citizen will have to act in accordance with them. In the best state, however, laws will be in accordance with the principles of virtue and so there would be no distinction between a good man and a good citizen." But what do we do when there is in fact a clear difference between these laws? i.e. the laws of state and dharmic laws? In such cases there is a conflict in our minds. Such was the case when M. K. Gandhi was asked to vacate his seat on a train in South Africa because he was not a white man. Such was the case when Rosa Parks was asked to take a seat in the back of a bus merely because her skin color was black. Such was the case when Abraham Lincoln agonized over the need to go to war to preserve the union. Such was the case when Robert McNamara, in the presence of clear evidence in regard to the futility of war in Vietnam, nevertheless endorsed the same. There are hundreds of such situations in which each of us confront a conflict. Our conscience alone is the true guide that helps us to choose. The consequences of decisions may sometimes be of historical significance affecting millions of people and changing the course of history. Gandhi, Parks and Lincoln took risks and chose what most would agree was a dharmic path. Robert McNamara, according to his own admission did not. In all these cases the course of history did change and the effects of decisions made by these individuals are still being felt. That is precisely the reason to train our conscience in Dharma so that we may, when called for, have the benefit of guidance at crucial times.

The concept of Dharma encompasses all aspects of our lives. Even political philosophies can issue out of principles based on Dharma. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was widely believed to have been a non-religious and scientific type wrote in the introduction to a book: " In India it is important for us to profit by modern technical processes and increase our production in agriculture and industry. But, in doing so, we must not forget that the essential objective to be aimed at is the quality of the individual and the concept of Dharma underlying it." (Socialism in Indian Planning, written by a member of Parliament Srimannarayan Agarwal)

Dharma is the first of four personal aims (chaturvidha phala purushartha) to be realized or striven for during the course of one's life time: Dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Artha implies wealth, prosperity, reputation or fame etc. Kama implies sensory and aesthetic fulfillment. Moksha is liberation and salvation. So the Hindu says that it is one's obligation to practice artha and kama with Dharma as the foundation so that the primary object of moksha (reaching salvation and a release from cycles of birth) may be obtained. Clearly happiness, prosperity, and good life are considered to be legitimate human experiences as long as they are within the framework of Dharma.

Are the concepts of happiness and good life in conflict with Dharma? That question was put to Yudhishtira, the hero of the epic Mahabharata. Yudhishtira was asked a hundred and twenty questions. I shall discuss only one of them in context. (Srinivasan, 1984)

Dharma, artha and kama conflict with each other; How can these contraries be reconciled?

As long as Dharma and one's wife are in harmony, Dharma, artha and kama are reconciled.

A householder has to live with these conflicting requirements and therefore the need for the restraints of Dharma on artha and kama. In order to maintain that balance, a man's wife needs to be dharmic. The Hindu view is that it is that protection coming from the wife, that torchlight, that spirit of cooperation and sacrifice that gives a reasonable chance for a man to meet the challenges of these conflicting requirements. The moral evident in this answer describes the special role of a Hindu wife and forms the basis of the word dharmapatni used in referring to a wife.

If moksha is our goal, the ancient Hindus said, then by all means participate fully in the affairs of society, raise a family, enjoy the good life, serve the community ... all within the framework known as Dharma. And how does one attain moksha? This is where the variety of yogas come in. This is also the reason for the popularity of the Gita. The Gita is a complex scripture and cannot be easily understood without adequate background. I believe an understanding of the Gita can come about from a study of the epics. However, I may summarize by pointing to three approaches that are discussed often. These are Karma, Jnana and Bhakti. Clearly these three distinct approaches emphasize selfless service, intellectual pursuits, and pure devotion respectively in the pursuit of moksha. However, when one delves deep into these yogas, one discovers that these apparently independent paths are indeed interdependent. It is this subtlety that leads to what I call as the tripod which forms the basis for striving to reach salvation.

My studies of our scriptures indicate that a certain strength of mind, a certain level of intelligence, is a must to understand the subtle concepts of life and death. Furthermore, I believe that the need for a spiritual life becomes greater, in fact, more meaningful, as man scores greater and greater victories in his attempt to understand the physical mysteries of the universe and to master his environment. The breath-taking adventures in which man landed on the moon, traveled by the side of his own space vehicle as though he had freed himself from every bond, the fantastic advances in genetics, computers, medicine and now the world wide web, all leave us in awe and grateful for the great era we live in. But what is more remarkable is the gradual realization of the power of the human mind, the human spirit that surpasses any and every conceivable achievement in the physical world. This might sound like a new discovery because of the more recent emphasis placed on the study of human behavior, human relations, etc. but the inquiry into the inner workings of the human mind is as old as civilization itself. Nirad Chaudhury (1966) says at the very beginning of his book that "the motto of this series of works is the stirring admonition found in identical words in all great languages of the Indo-European family:

gnoti seauton
nosce te ipsum
atamanam viddhi
know thyself
connai-toi toi meme
et cetera,

This introspection seems to have been looked upon as a duty by the peoples who spoke these languages and whenever they have forgotten it they have also lost their soul." In fact the ancient Hindu made a special effort to focus his attention inwards precisely because he found the inner universe equally fascinating and equally demanding. The accumulated results of these inner journeys are known as the Vedas. Therefore the philosophy of the Hindus is known as Vedanta, the culmination of the Vedas.

Let us examine some of the principles of Vedanta which form the basis of what is known in modern times as Hinduism. Vedanta says that a person who does not believe in himself or herself is an atheist. Swami Vivekananda refers to the popular sholka in the Gita: nainam cchindanti shastraani nainam dahati paavakaha, nachainam kledayantyaapo nashoshayati maarutaha (The Hindu believes that he is spirit. Him the sword cannot pierce, him fire cannot burn, him water cannot wet, him the air cannot dry.) and says "The Hindu believes that every soul is a circle whose circumference is nowhere, but whose center is located in the body, and that death means the change of this center from body to body." This intense belief in one's self reflects the Hindu belief that every human being has in him or her, a spark of the divine. In a sense the whole philosophy of Upanishads is summarized by the four Mahavakyas i.e. Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahma), Tattvamasi (Thou art That), Prajnanam Brahma (the ultimate truth is Brahma) and Ayamatma Brahma (the extention of the Self is Brahman).

The next fundamental aspect of Hinduism is its tradition of tolerance. Ancient universities and religious centers in India attracted students and visitors from many parts of the known world. They invited debate and inquiry into religious ideas. It is with this spirit that modern Hindus also accept all religions to be true and self-contained. There is a hymn which translates, "As the different streams, having their sources in different places, all mingle their water in the sea, O Lord, the different paths which men take through different tendencies, various though they appear, crooked or straight, all lead to Thee". Similarly, a sholka in the Rgveda declares " Flowers and Bees may be different, but the honey is the same. Systems of faith may be different but God is one (Gass, 1999). Furthermore, the Lord has declared in the Gita, "Wherever thou seest extraordinary holiness and extraordinary power raising and purifying humanity, know thou that I am there". That other ways of life leading essentially to the same goal may be equally good was a benefit of doubt properly ingrained in Hindu thought. Ekam sat viprah bahuda vadanti is the ancient belief that Truth is One but the wise utter it many ways.

In so far as ultimate values are concerned, Hindu thought never recognized or accepted any boundaries--geographical, racial or otherwise. Truth is unquestionably valid universally. In fact this belief leads to another fundamental of Hinduism, namely, a universal outlook. Even when some national leaders considered, studied and adopted other religious systems, they were not treated as outcasts but on the contrary respected. Take for example Ram Mohun Roy. He studied Christianity and Buddhism. Initially basing his demands for reform on the Upanishads and Badarayana's Brahma Sutra (the earliest source of the Vedantic school of philosophy possibly composed between AD. 200-450), Raja Ram Mohun Roy moved closer and closer to Christianity and wrote in 1820 a book called Precepts of Jesus which brought many Bengalis to Christianity. He established the Brahmo Samaj in 1828. The service in Brahmo Samaj consisted of the recital of Vedic texts. It is this open attitude and an emphasis on praying for the welfare of all mankind that forms the basis of the shloka; sarve janah sukhino bhavantu, samasta sanmangalani bhavantu: May all people be happy; May there be prosperity everywhere.

These fundamental beliefs have paved the way for the Hindu towards development of a philosophical outlook on life. This outlook is based firmly on the belief that there is an intimate connection between the Jivatma, the individual soul, and the Paramatma, the supreme Soul. Broadly speaking, these fundamentals comprise a code of behavior that form the contemporary Hindu view of life that Dr. Radhakrishnan says is "an attempt to discover the ideal possibilities of human life". Right now, the rapid development in information technology provides an unusual opportunity to try and balance corresponding development in human understanding. We are very well aware of this need and are reminded daily when we look at a newspaper, listen to radio or watch television or just talk to our neighbors. Although we are nowhere near discovering the ideal possibilities of human life, the latest technology of the world wide web that has nearly connected us all has provided an unprecedented access to people and their ideas. Time is now for people to exploit this medium, share their ideas and spread far and wide the understanding of various paths to the same great goals defined in each faith. Time is now to put into practice our beliefs and attempt to tip the balance in favor of Dharma. There has always been, is now and will be in this world both good and evil. It is naive to believe otherwise. But we possess the tools and have an obligation to restore and maintain a balance so that "ideal possibilities of human life" has at least a slight edge.

Let me close by expressing that hope and quoting a single paragraph from the speech by Swami

Vivekananda which sums up the outlook of Hindus, like nothing else written by anyone,

anywhere and at any time. On September 11, 1893, Swami Vivekananda addressing the parliament of religions in Chicago said ".. if there is ever to be a universal religion, it must be one which will have no location in time or place; which will be infinite, like the God it will preach, and whose sun will shine upon the followers of Krishna and Christ, on saints and sinners alike; which will not be Brahminical or Buddhist, Christian or Mohammedan, but the sum total of all of these, and still have infinite space for development; which in its catholicity will embrace in its infinite arms, and find a place for every human being, from the lowest groveling savage, not far removed from the brute, to the highest man, towering by the virtues of his head and heart almost above humanity, making society stand in awe of him and doubt his human nature. It will be a religion which will have no place for persecution or intolerance in its polity, which will recognize divinity in every man and woman, and whose whole scope, whose whole force, will be centered in aiding humanity to realize its own true and divine nature."